Chemosphere
Volume 116,
December 2014
, Pages 3-9
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.02.036Get rights and content
Abstract
All nine PFRs studied were detected in house and car dust from the Netherlands with the exception of tris(butyl) phosphate (TNBP) and tris(isobutyl) phosphate (TIBP) in car dust. Tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP, median 22μgg−1) was dominant in house dust collected around and on electronics followed by tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP, median 1.3μgg−1), tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP, median 1.3μgg−1) and tris(phenyl) phosphate (TPHP, median 0.8μgg−1). Levels of TPHP and tris(methylphenyl) phosphate (TMPP, also known as TCP) in house dust on electronics were significantly higher than in house dust collected around electronics, suggesting that electronic equipment has limited contribution to the PFR levels in house dust, with the exception of TPHP and TMPP.
Car dust was dominated by tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) with the highest levels found in dust collected from the car seats (1100μgg−1). The mean TDCIPP and TCIPP levels observed in car dust were significantly higher than the levels observed in dust collected around electronics. Significantly higher mean TMPP levels in dust taken from car seats were found compared to dust collected around the equipment (p<0.05). This is probably influenced by the use of TDCIPP, TCIPP in polyurethane foam (car seats) and the use of TMPP as plasticizer in car interiors.
Worldwide four PFR patterns were observed in house dust. The PFR pattern in the Netherlands of TDCIPP, TMPP, TCEP, TCIPP and TPHP in house dust is comparable to the pattern found in six other countries, which may point to identical sources of these PFRs in the indoor environment. However, the PFR levels between the countries and within countries showed high variation.
Introduction
Organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) are produced in high volumes and used worldwide by manufacturers of electronic equipment, furniture, textile, and in the building industry in isolation material (Van der Veen and de Boer, 2012). Restriction over the years of some brominated flame retardants (BFRs) like Penta-bromodiphenylether (BDE), OctaBDE and DecaBDE technical mixtures has led to an increase in the use of PFRs. In 2006 the estimated total flame retardant (FR) consumption in Europe was 465000 metric tonnes, with 20% covered by PFRs, compared to 10% for the BFRs (CEFIC, 2013). In addition to their use as FR, organophosphorus compounds are also used as plasticizers, stabilizers, lubricants in hydraulic fluids, antifoaming agents, and in floor polish, etc. (Marklund et al., 2003, Van der Veen and de Boer, 2012, European Flame Retardants Association, 2013).
The non-chlorinated organophosphorus compounds 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate, (EHDPP), tris(isobutyl) phosphate (TIBP), tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP) tributyl phosphate (TNBP) and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) are primarily used as plasticizers. TNBP has been detected in wall and ceiling coverings and is used as additive in varnish, concrete, glue and airplane hydraulic fluids (Marklund et al., 2003, Saito et al., 2007). TBOEP is added to floor finish products (up to 0.5–8% by weight) (Marklund et al., 2003, Kajiwara et al., 2011). TMPP is further used as a plasticizer in PVC and as additive in hydraulic fluids (Van der Veen and de Boer, 2012). The chlorinated organophosphorus compounds tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP) and tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) are used as FR in polyurethane foam (PUF), textiles, plastics, wood preservation coating and unsaturated polyester resins (Ingerowski et al., 2001, WHO, 1998, Van der Veen and de Boer, 2012). TCEP is also found as impurity (4.5–7.5%) in the technical mixture of 2,2-bis(chloromethyl)propane-1,3-diyltetrakis(2-chloroethyl)bisphosphate (BCMP–BCEP) (also known as V6) used in PUF in the automotive furniture. (EURAR on TCEP, 2009, Fang et al., 2013). TCIPP and TDCIPP are used as substitutes for PentaBDE in PUFs. They have been detected up to 5% by weight in furniture foams (2004–2009) from the U.S. (Stapleton et al., 2009). Another non-halogenated organophosphorus compound, tris(phenyl) phosphate (TPHP), is also added to PUF in combination with other halogenated mixtures like PentaBDE (WHO, 1991, Stapleton et al., 2009). TPHP is also used as by-product in Firemaster 550 as alternative for PentaBDE (Stapleton et al., 2009), and in the technical mixture of resorcinol bis (diphenylphosphate) (PBDPP) and bisphenol A bis (diphenylphosphate) (BPA-BDPP) (both alternatives for DecaBDE) (LCSP, 2005, Waaijers et al., 2013). PFRs are not covalently bound to the material but used as additives and therefore they can easily leach from products into the environment (Marklund et al., 2003).
PFR have been detected in house dust from different countries; Sweden, Belgium, Spain, Germany and Romania, Japan, Philippines, New Zealand, Kuwait, Pakistan and the United States (US) (Marklund et al., 2003, Bergh et al., 2011, Van den Eede et al., 2011, García et al., 2007, Brommer et al., 2012, Ingerowski et al., 2001, Dirtu et al., 2012, Kanazawa et al., 2010, Kim et al., 2013, Ali et al., 2012, Ali et al., 2013, Dodson et al., 2012, Stapleton et al., 2009). The highest PFR levels were observed in house dust from Japan and the US. In general, TBOEP is one of the most abundant organophosphorus compounds observed in house dust. The concentrations found in house dust often exceeded those of PBDEs, Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) in the same samples (Stapleton et al., 2009, Van den Eede et al., 2011). In addition to house dust PFRs were also found in dust collected in hotels, day care centers, hospitals, shops, prisons, libraries, cinemas, aircrafts and public dance halls (Marklund et al., 2003, Takigami et al., 2009). Data on PFRs in dust collected from cars are limited. The limited data show that some PFRs in car dust from Germany, Pakistan, Kuwait and US were significantly higher than the levels observed in house dust from those countries (Brommer et al., 2012, Ali et al., 2013, Carignan et al., 2013). The worldwide detection of PFRs in dust from various indoor environments indicates that humans can be exposed to PFRs by inhalation and ingestion of dust.
Limited toxicity data is available for PFRs, however, for some PFRs neurotoxicity and carcinogenicity are observed. The chlorinated PFRs TDCIPP and TCEP have been proven to be carcinogenic and TCIPP is a suspected carcinogen (WHO, 1998). Neurotoxic effects have also been observed for the non-chlorinated PFRs ortho-TMPP, TPHP and TNBP, while TBOEP is a suspected carcinogen (WHO, 1990, WHO, 1991, WHO, 2000). Dishaw et al. (2011) observed that TDCIPP, TCEP and TCIPP may affect neurodevelopment in PC12 cell studies. Meekers and Stapleton (2010) concluded that TDCIPP and TPHP may be associated with decreased semen quality in men.
The aim of the current study was to investigate the indoor contamination of ten PFRs (Table 1) in the Netherlands as no data is available. Dust samples were collected in various houses and cars, and the influences of electronic equipment as source for PFRs in house dust was evaluated by taking dust samples on and around electronics. The PFR levels and patterns in house dust from the Netherlands was compared with those from other countries and a comparison was made between the PFR patterns and levels in house and car dust. This study also provides information on the comparison of two analytical methods (gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) versus liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) for the measurement of ten PFRs in dust.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
Information about chemicals and suppliers is provided in the supplementary material of this manuscript. The abbreviations for the flame retardants and plasticizers in this manuscript are based on the abbreviation standards introduced by Bergman et al. (2012).
Validation of the method
Validation of the dust sample treatment method was performed by a triplicate spike experiment of a dust certified reference material from NIST, coded SRM 2585, at two concentration levels. This SRM 2585 is not certified for the PFRs. However, it has recently been used in an interlaboratory study (ILS) for PFRs (Brandsma et al., 2013a) and also analyzed for PFRs by Van den Eede et al. (2011) and Bergh et al. (2012). Nine ∼50mg aliquots of SRM 2585 dust were weighed and three blanks were
Comparison GC–EI–MS versus LC–ESI–MS/MS
To compare the results of GC–EI–MS with LC–ESI–MS/MS, the spiked samples were analyzed with both techniques. Good recoveries (79–101%) were observed for six of the ten PFRs with LC–ESI–MS/MS. However, for TDCIPP, TBOEP, EHDPP and TMPP ion suppression was observed for more than 50% of the signal. Better results were observed with GC–EI–MS where seven PFRs showed good recoveries (82–112%) for both the high and low level spike. Exceptions were TBOEP with a somewhat lower recovery (65%) for the low
Conclusions
Due to ion suppression of TDCIPP, TBOEP, EHDPP and TCP with LC–ESI–MS–MS, GC–EI–MS is the preferred technique for analyzing PFRs in dust samples. To our knowledge this is the first data set on PFRs in house dust of the Netherlands. PFRs are detected in relatively high concentrations in house dust (up to 159μgg−1 for TBOEP) and car dust (up to 1100μgg−1 for TDCIPP). The sources for TBOEP and TDCIPP in house and car dust are probably the use of TBOEP in floor polish and the use of TDCIPP in PUF
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the European Commission as the work was part of the FP7 ENFIRO project, (Contract No. 226563). The authors are solely responsible for the contents of this paper, which does not necessarily represent the opinion of the European Community.
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Presence, source attribution, and human exposure to organophosphate esters in indoor dust from various microenvironments in Nigeria
2023, Emerging Contaminants
Very few studies have reported the presence of the organophosphate esters (OPEs) in African indoor microenvironments. We therefore document here, the concentrations, profiles, and human exposure to eight organophosphate esters (OPEs) for the first time in indoor dust from various microenvironments in Nigeria, specifically: cars/buses (n=10), homes (n=20), offices (n=20), and medical centres (n=14). The concentrations of OPEs in these indoor dust samples were among the lowest reported internationally. Concentrations of ∑8OPEs varied substantially between individual samples and the predominant OPEs were: tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) (detection frequency (DF)=90–100%), tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP) (DF=100%), and 2-ethylhexyl-diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP) (DF=100%). There were no significant differences (P˃0.05) between ∑8OPEs concentrations in dust samples from cars/buses (average=295ng/g), offices (231ng/g), homes (277ng/g), and medical centres (127ng/g). Concentrations of chlorinated OPEs: tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), TCIPP, and tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) were significantly correlated with those of triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), EHDPP, and TBOEP. Estimated daily intakes (EDI) of target OPEs via indoor dust ingestion and dermal absorption were lower than the corresponding reference dose (RfD) values, indicating that exposure to the studied OPEs in the indoor environment does not pose a significant health risk for the general population in Nigeria, even under a high-end exposure scenario.
Simultaneous detection of furfural, 5-methylfurfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in tsamba, roasted highland barley flour, by UPLC–MS/MS
2023, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis
Tsamba, roasted highland barley flour, is the traditional staple food of Tibet Autonomous Region. In this work, a sensitive and fast method was developed and validated for the simultaneous analysis of furfural, 5-methylfurfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in tsamba by UPLC–MS/MS with APCI source. The extracted tsamba samples were purified by optimized QuEChERS purification sorbents. The target compounds were detected by tandem mass spectrometry in MRM mode, and quantified by using internal standards of D4-furfural and 13C6-5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural. Good linearities were obtained (r>0.999) in the range of 2–100μg/L for furfural, 1–50μg/L for 5-methylfurfural and 10–500μg/L for 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural. The mean recoveries ranged from 89.5% to 106% for all the analytes, with coefficients of variation less than 10%. Low limits of quantification of the method were obtained. Finally, the method was successfully applied to the analysis of tsamba samples from Lhasa (Tibet, China). The results showed that furanic compounds were detected in all tsamba samples. The health risk assessment of furfural indicated potential risk for human consumption of tsamba for rural residents in Lhasa, and a per capita consumption of tsamba less than 180g/person/day was recommended.
Seasonal and source characteristics of organophosphorus flame retardants in air and house dust in Taiwan residential microenvironments: Implications for young children's exposure and risk assessment using a probabilistic approach
2023, Environmental Pollution
Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are prevalent in multiple industries. They have gradually replaced brominated flame retardants in recent years. Eleven OPFRs were collected from indoor air and house dust in two primary activity spaces––bedrooms and living rooms. The aim of the present study was to explore the potential sources of, and health risks associated with, OPFR exposure in young children using integrated and probabilistic approaches. The level of 11 indoor air OPFRs (466ng/m3) in the bedroom was greater than that measured in the living room (379ng/m3), and these values contrasted with those detected in dust. The air OPFRs in the warmer season were higher than those measured in the cold season; the inverse was true for those detected in house dust. In both activity spaces, the composition profiles indicated that tris(1-chloro-2-propyl)phosphate in indoor air (39%) and tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate in house dust (67%) were the dominant congeners. The average daily exposure dose (ADD) of OPFRs via air inhalation and dust ingestion did not differ significantly between preschool and school-aged children or based on sex. The Monte-Carlo-simulated 95th percentile ADD of the OPFRs in dust ingested by preschool children was 1.4 times higher. The OPFR exposure from air inhalation and dust ingestion in Taiwanese children is currently an acceptable non-carcinogenic risk and a negligible carcinogenic risk to Taiwan residents.
A review on organophosphate esters: Physiochemical properties, applications, and toxicities as well as occurrence and human exposure in dust environment
2023, Journal of Environmental Management
Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are widely used as flame retardants and plasticizers in the world. The use of OPEs has increased rapidly due to the prohibition of polybrominated diphenyl ethers. However, OPEs are mainly added to various materials by physical mixing, they are therefore easy to be released into the environment through volatilization, leaching, and abrasion during their production, use, transportation, and after disposal. Dust, as an important medium for human exposure to OPEs, has attracted extensive attention. Here, this article reviewed the current knowledge on the physiochemical properties, consumptions and applications, and ecotoxicities of OPEs, also synthesized the available data on the occurrence of 13 OPEs in outdoor and indoor dust environments around the world over the past decade. The results showed that the sum of OPEs (ΣOPEs) was the highest in outdoor dust from an e-waste disposal area in Tianjin of China (range: 1390–42700ng/g dw; mean: 11500ng/g dw). The highest ΣOPEs was found in Japan for home dust (range: 9300–11000000ng/g dw; mean: 266543ng/g dw), Sweden for office dust (range: 14000–1600000ng/g dw; mean: 360100ng/g dw) and daycare center dust (range: 40000–4600000ng/g dw; mean: 1990800ng/g dw), and Brazil for car dust (range: 108000–2050000ng/g dw; mean: 541000ng/g dw). The use pattern of OPEs differed in different regions and countries. The exposure and risk assessment based on the data of OPEs in home dust indicated that the average daily intakes of OPEs via dust ingestion for children and adults were lower than the corresponding reference doses; and that the current human exposure to OPEs through indoor dust ingestion were not likely to pose risks to human health. Finally, the review pointed out the gaps of current research and provided the directions for further study on OPEs in dust environment.
HRMS screening of organophosphate flame retardants and poly-/perfluorinated substances in dust from cars and trucks: Occurrence and human exposure implications
2022, Science of the Total Environment
Citation Excerpt :
TPhP is employed not only as flame retardant and plasticizer, but also in electronic devices, hence its occurrence may be attributed to emissions from them (Brandsma et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2020). In addition, it is a main component of Japanese electronic equipment, thus it may largely occur in cars from the Japanese market (Brandsma et al., 2014). Furthermore, being one the main OPFRs applied in PUF, it can be emitted from car seats (Christia et al., 2018).
Time spent within vehicles' cabin has been largely increased during the last years. As a result, the assessment of indoor dust quality is meaningful since dust can be a source of numerous emerging contaminants associated with adverse effects in human health. To this end, fourteen cars and ten trucks from the city of Thessaloniki, Northern Greece were selected to assess the quality of vehicles' microenvironments. An HRMS-based strategy was deployed for the target and non-target analysis of the collected samples. The target approach aimed at the accurate mass screening of nine organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and nine per-/polyfluorinated compounds (PFAS), revealing mean concentrations for the OPFRs varied from <MQL–3409 ng/g for tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCP), while the PFASs were either not detected (<MDL) or detected below the quantification limit (<MQL). To exploit the advanced technology of HRMS, a non-target analysis (NTA) workflow was also designed and employed, allowing the identification of 17 non-targets (plasticizers, PPCPs, pesticides and industrial chemicals) at identification confidence levels from 3 to 1. The statistical analysis between the positive findings and vehicles' conditions evidenced a possible of association just for individual cases. Lastly, a preliminary evaluation of human exposure to the target analytes was applied with the view to assess the potential harmful effects. All values were < 1 indicating no special effects because of exposure to this concentration level.
Multi-class organic pollutants in atmospheric particulate matter (PM<inf>2.5</inf>) from a Southwestern Europe industrial area: Levels, sources and human health risk
2022, Environmental Research
The occurrence of 50 multi-class pollutants comprising 18 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 12 phthalate esters (PAEs), 12 organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs), 6 synthetic musk compounds (SMCs) and 2 bisphenols was studied in atmospheric particulate matter (PM2.5) samples collected at an industrial area focused on automotive manufacturing located at the Southwestern Atlantic European region (Vigo city, Spain) during 1-year period. Among all quantitated pollutants in PM2.5 samples, bisphenol A (BPA) was the most predominant with an average concentration of 6180pgm−3, followed by PAHs comprising benzo(b+j)fluoranthene (BbF+BjF) and benzo(g,h,i)perylene (BghiP), accounting for 546pgm−3 and 413pgm−3 respectively. In addition, two OPFRs concerning tris(chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) and triphenyl phosphine oxide (TPPO) were the next following the concentration order, accounting for 411pgm−3 and 367pgm−3 respectively; being butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) the most profuse PAE (56.1pgm−3 by average). High relative standard deviations (RSDs) were observed during the whole sampling period, while statistically significant differences were only observed for PAHs concentrations during cold and warm seasons. Furthermore, some water-soluble ions and metal(oid)s were analysed in PM2.5 samples to be used as PM source tracers, whose concentrations were quite below the target levels set in the current legislation. Data obtained from principal component analysis (PCA) and PAHs molecular indices suggested a pyrogenic and petrogenic origin for PAHs, whereas occurrence of the remaining compounds seems to be attributed to resources used in the automotive industrial activity settled in the sampling area. Moreover, although a substantial anthropogenic source to PM2.5 in the area was observed, marine and soil resuspension contributions were also accounted. Finally, carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks posed by PM2.5-bound pollutants inhalation were assessed, being both averages within the safe level considering the whole period.
Research article
Detection and intake assessment of organophosphate flame retardants in house dust in Japanese dwellings
Science of The Total Environment, Volume 478, 2014, pp. 190-199
The demand for phosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) has recently increased as an alternative to polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE). PFRs have been detected in house dust, but little is known about the concentrations of PFRs in private homes and the effects on human health. We measured the levels of 10 PFRs in indoor floor dust and upper surface dust from 128 Japanese dwellings of families with children in elementary school. The median (min–max) concentrations (μg/g) of PFRs were as follows: tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP), 30.88 (<0.61–936.65); tris(2-chloro-iso-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), 0.74 (<0.56–392.52); and triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), 0.87 (<0.80–23.35). These values exceeded 50% detection rates, and the rates are median over the LOD in floor dust. The concentrations (μg/g) of TBOEP 26.55 (<0.61–1933.24), TCIPP 2.23 (<0.56–621.23), TPHP 3.13 (<0.80–27.47), tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) 1.17 (<0.65–92.22), and tributyl phosphate (TNBP) 0.74 (<0.36–60.64) exceeded 50% detection rates in the upper surface dust. A significant positive correlation (P<0.05) between the concentrations of TCIPP and TBOEP was shown in floor dust and upper surface dust (n=48). Estimated median and 95th percentile daily intake was calculated for toddlers and elementary school children and was compared with reference dose values (RfD) from the literature. For TBOEP, the estimated 95th percentile intake from floor dust was 14% of RfD for toddlers and 4% for school children. The estimated intake from upper surface dust was somewhat lower. Estimated median intake of TBOEP and median intake for the other PFRs were less than 1% of the RfD. TBOEP, TCIPP and TPHP were the main PFRs in the dust. The median levels of PFRs are well below the RfD values.
Research article
Organophosphate and brominated flame retardants in Australian indoor environments: Levels, sources, and preliminary assessment of human exposure
Environmental Pollution, Volume 235, 2018, pp. 670-679
Concentrations of nine organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and eight polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in samples of indoor dust (n = 85) and air (n = 45) from Australian houses, offices, hotels, and transportation (buses, trains, and aircraft). All target compounds were detected in indoor dust and air samples. Median ∑9OPFRs concentrations were 40 μg/g in dust and 44 ng/m3 in indoor air, while median ∑8PBDEs concentrations were 2.1 μg/g and 0.049 ng/m3. Concentrations of FRs were higher in rooms that contained carpet, air conditioners, and various electronic items. Estimated daily intakes in adults are 14000 pg/kg body weight/day and 330 pg/kg body weight/day for ∑9OPFRs and ∑8PBDEs, respectively. Our results suggest that for the volatile FRs such as tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and TCIPP, inhalation is expected to be the more important intake pathway compared to dust ingestion and dermal contact.
Research article
Organophosphate esters flame retardants in the indoor environment
Environment International, Volume 106, 2017, pp. 97-104
Concentrations of 13 organophosphate ester flame retardants (OPEs) were measured in air, dust and window wipes from 63 homes in Canada, the Czech Republic and the United States in the spring and summer of 2013 to look for abundances, differences among regions, and partitioning behavior. In general, we observed the highest concentrations for halogenated OPEs, particularly TCEP, TCIPP and TDCIPP, and also non-halogenated TPHP. Differences between regions strongly depended on the matrix. The concentrations of OPEs in dust were significantly higher in the US than in Canada (CAN) and Czech Republic (CZ). CZ had the highest concentrations in window film and CAN in air. ΣOPE concentrations were 2–3 and 1–2 orders of magnitude greater than ΣBFRs in air, and dust and window films, respectively. We found a significant relationship between the concentrations in dust and air, and between the concentrations in window film and air for OPEs with log KOA values <12, suggesting that equilibrium was reached for these compounds but not for those with log KOA>12. This hypothesis was confirmed by a large discrepancy between values predicted using a partitioning model and the measured values for OPEs with log KOA values >12.
Research article
Organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) in human breast milk from several Asian countries
Chemosphere, Volume 116, 2014, pp. 91-97
In this study, the concentrations of 10 organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) were determined in 89 human breast milk samples collected from Japan, the Philippines and Vietnam. Among the targeted PFRs, tris(2-chloroexyl) phosphate (TCEP) and triphenyl phosphate (TPHP) were the predominant compounds and were detected in more than 60% of samples in all three countries. The concentrations of PFRs in human breast milk were significantly higher (p<0.05) in the Philippines (median 70ngg−1lipidwt.) than those in Japan (median 22ngg−1lipidwt.) and Vietnam (median 10ngg−1lipidwt.). The present results suggest that the usage of products containing PFRs in the Philippines is higher than those of Japan and Vietnam. Comparing with a previous literature survey in Sweden, the levels of PFRs in human breast milk from the Philippines were 1.5–2 times higher, whereas levels in Japan and Vietnam were 4–20 times lower, suggesting that these differences might be due to their variation in the usage of flame-retarded products utilized in each country. When daily intake of PFRs to infants via human breast milk was estimated, some individuals accumulated tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) and TCEP were close to reference dose (RfD). This is the first report to identify PFRs in human breast milk samples from Asian countries.
Research article
Organophosphorous flame retardants in biota from Svalbard, Norway
Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 101, Issue 1, 2015, pp. 442-447
Eight arctic species, including fish, birds and mammals, from diverse habitats (marine and terrestrial) within the Svalbard Archipelago, Norway, were screened for 14 organophosphorus flame retardant (PFR) compounds. Ten PFRs were detected: tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP), tris(2-chloroisopropyl)phosphate (TCIPP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TDCIPP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP); 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP); tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBOEP); tritolyl phosphate (TCrP); triisobutyl phosphate (TIBP); tris(2-ethylhexyl)phosphate (TEHP); and butyl diphenyl phosphate (DPhBP). The greatest number of different PFR compounds, and the highest detection frequency were measured in capelin (Mallotus villotus), and the lowest in Brünnich's guillemot (Uria lomvia). The highest concentrations of ΣPFR, as well as the highest concentration of a single PFR compound, TBOEP, were measured in arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus). The presence of PFR compounds in arctic biota indicates that these compounds can undergo long-range transport and are, to some degree, persistent and bioaccumulated. The potential for biomagnification from fish to higher trophic levels seems to be limited.
Research article
Brominated and organophosphate flame retardants in indoor dust of Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Implications for human exposure
Science of The Total Environment, Volumes 569–570, 2016, pp. 269-277
Different flame retardants (FRs) namely polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), emerging brominated/chlorinated flame retardants (Br/Cl FRs), and organophosphate FRs (OPFRs) were analyzed in cars, air conditioner (AC) filters and floor dust of different households from Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). To the best of our knowledge, this is first study in literature reporting emerging Br/Cl FRs and OPFRs in AC filter dust and also first to report on their occurrence in dust from KSA. Chlorinated alkyl phosphate, penta-BDEs, BDE-209, and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) were the major chemicals in dust samples from all microenvironments. ΣOPFRs occurred at median concentrations (ng/g dust) of 15,400, 10,500, and 3750 in AC filter, car and house floor dust, respectively. For all analyzed chemicals, relatively lower levels were observed in floor dust than car and AC filter dust. The profiles of FRs in car dust were different from AC filter and floor dust, which reflected their wider application as FR and plasticizer in variety of household and commercial products. For toddlers, assuming high dust intake and 95th percentile concentrations, the computed exposure estimation for BDE-99 was higher than RfD values.
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